The rate of reaction between Nitric Essay Example for Free

The rate of reaction between Nitric Essay Hot water   Thermometer   Ice Method: The Trough Method 1) Pour water into plastic container. 2) Pour water into measuring cylinder, and place it upside down in the plastic container full of water. 3) Place rubber tubing inside measuring cylinder. 4) Clamp the measuring cylinder in place. 5) Pour water (of the temperature you have chosen) into a beaker. 6) Pour 20cm3 of nitric acid into a boiling tube. 7) Place a calcium carbonate chip (of what mass you have chosen) inside the boiling tube. 8) Place bung firmly on top of the boiling tube. 9) Start the timer as soon as you place the bung on the boiling tube. Safety: 1) Wear safety goggles. 2) Hold bung from the end and not from the delivery tube to avoid injury. 3) If there is hot water in a beaker, hold the beaker from the rim. 4) Also place apparatus on the middle of the bench to avoid spillages and to avoid injury. How I kept it a Fair Test: I kept the mass of the calcium carbonate chip at 0. 48g. I kept the amount of nitric acid at 20cm3. I equilibrated the equipment to the reacting temperature. I took the same amount of time placing the marble chip in the boiling tube each time. Results Volume of CO2 lost Temperature (i C) 4i C Time (min) Run 1 Run 2 Average. Time (min) Run 1 Run 2 Average  This shows that at low temperatures, there will be a slower rate of reaction. Graph B shows that1:30 min and 4:00 min there was a significant increase in the loss of CO2. The rate of the reaction was 9. 66 cm3/min. Graph C is similar to Graph B as the reaction starts of slowly but increases as time passes. The rate of the reaction at 27? C was 12. 33 cm3/min. Graph D is also very similar to the two previous graphs as it starts slowly but gains speed towards the end. The rate of the reaction was 14 cm3/min. Graph E starts off very quickly but starts to taper off towards the end. The rate of the reaction was 35. 5 cm3/min. The final results show that my prediction was correct. I predicted that as the temperature is increased the faster the reaction would take place. Cool acid particles have little energy, therefore do not collide with the marble chips very often, and for a chemical reaction to occur you need many successful collisions between the acid particles and the marble chip. The hotter the acid, the faster the collisions and the reaction speeds up. The rate of a chemical reaction is increased by increasing the temperature and alternatively decreased by decreasing the temperature. The increase in the rate of reaction with temperature can be explained by the collision theory. An increase in temperature increases the energy of the reacting particles. This makes more energy available for the breaking of bonds, which must take place in order for a chemical reaction to occur. Bond breaking is more frequent at higher temperatures. Increase in temperature Of reactants Evaluation The procedure we used was not as accurate as others that could have been used instead. Possible reasons for errors in this experiment were: Top Pan Balance Timer Measuring Cylinder Thermometer. Another possible error in this experiment was that some of the Carbon Dioxide dissolved into the water in the measuring cylinder. The solubility depends on the temperature at which the water was. Also the size of the bubbles and the rate of production of the bubbles both contributed to the experimental error. Experimental Error 1. Top Pan Balance: This was only accurate to three decimal places, as the mass of the marble chip had to be 0. 48g the experimental error would be: 0 The experimental error for the top pan balance is relatively low. 2. Thermometer: This was only accurate tFor the thermometer as the temperature increased the experimental error decreased therefore I was more likely to find an error in my results at the lower temperatures. For the measuring cylinder when the volume is small the error is large. The total experimental error for each temperature is: C- 4. 3003% error 37? C- 3. 9003% error As you can see, the lower the temperature the higher the experimental error. Improvements   Marble chips- I could not ensure the size and mass of each marble chip, therefore could employ a sieve type mechanism. Range- I would spread the temperatures out more even; however have less error owing to lower temperatures. Water- I would have water, which was saturated with sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3). As this allows little CO2 to dissolve in it. Bibliography: GCSE Chemistry Revision Guide: Co-ordination Group Chemistry: Hunt and Sykes Understanding Chemistry (A-level):Ted Lister and Janet Renshaw Appendix   Includes Graphs A-E Sheryar Majid Chemistry Coursework 2000/2001 Dr Wright 1 Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Patterns of Behaviour section. o

Determining Cognitive Functioning of Individual

Determining Cognitive Functioning of Individual Serial assessment in neuropsychology is necessary to make inferences regarding an individual’s level of functioning, i.e. to determine whether there has been ‘real’ improvement or decline, outside of measurement error, normal variation and clinically insignificant change [1]. A number of psychometric methods have been developed in order to interpret changes in test scores over repeated occasions of assessment. The associated problems and processes that are involved in delineating observed scores into their subcomponents of measurement error and true scores are complex and problematic [1]. Acquiring knowledge and understanding of issues pertaining to measurement error, such as the standard error of measurement (SEM,) is crucial to accurate interpretation of neuropsychological test results and change scores. The SEM refers to the total error variance of a set of obtained scores, where the obtained scores are an unbiased estimate of an individual’s true score [2]. It is the standard deviation (SD) of an individual’s test scores had the specified test been undertaken multiple times, and is calculated by multiplying the baseline SD of a measure by the square root of one minus the reliability coefficient of the measure [3]. The SEM is inversely related to a test’s reliability, such that larger SEMs reflect less reliable tests, and therefore denote diminished accuracy with the measure taken and the scores obtained [1]. This leads to greater variability within a test battery and thus any interpretation of results in such a case should be undertaken with a considerable degree of caution [4]. SEMs are useful in preventing the unwarranted attachment of significant meaning to between-score differences. That is, SEMs and their corresponding confidence intervals may overlap, indicating that some of the observed score difference may actually be attributable to error in measurement [1]. However, whilst the SEM is useful for estimating the degree of measurement error, it is not a suitable predictive measure as it is based on a distribution that presumes true score knowledge, which will always be unknown as tests do not have perfect reliability. As such, utilising the standard error of estimate (SEE) for such purposes may be the more appropriate method [2]. The SEE is a method which utilises a regression-based approach and measures the dispersion of predicted scores [5]. The SEE reflects the SD of true scores when the observed score is held constant, and is the statistic from which confidence intervals should be constructed [2]. The construction of confidence intervals is closely related to a test’s reliability. More reliable tests, in terms of internal consistency, represent homogeneity within the test itself. Thus, the associated confidence intervals will encompass a more narrow range of scores, with the resulting estimate being more precise [2]. It is therefore necessary to consider a test’s reliability coefficient, as below a certain point, the utility of a test is compromised [2]. Furthermore, as the reliability of a test is the single largest factor in determining the degree of change needed to occur over time from which the observed difference can be deemed to reflect actual change, using tests with high reliability coefficients is of paramount importance [6]. The consideration of measurement error in neuropsychological test results may also incorporate the assessment of observed score differences in terms of clinical significance. Clinically significant change can be interpreted on the basis of whether an individual’s change in test performance over two occasions reflects sufficient improvement, so that the individual has shifted classification categories, for example from ‘impaired’ to ‘normal’ [6]. Therefore, if a change is to be considered clinically significant, the tests being used to assess observed score differences need to be reliable. However, interpreting clinically significant change may also be problematic. Whilst there may be a considerable observed change in test scores from one measurement occasion to the next, if the starting point is at the extreme low end of a category, and the end point is at the extreme high end of a category, then an individual’s classification will not change and clinically significant improvement will not be deemed to have occurred [6]. This is a problematic interpretation as these changes may well have had important functional consequences for the individual that underwent assessment, and thus it is important to employ sensible clinical judgement [6]. Caution also needs to be applied to the interpretation of statistically reliable change, to avoid the implication that it represents real change. In reality, the observed change may instead reflect measurement error [6]. Statistically meaningful differences may also be a common occurrence within a particular population [7], but these are not necessarily clinically significant differences. Whilst neuropsychological test interpretation must consider, amongst other things, base rates of expected differences and abnormalities, the number of measures in a battery must also be taken into account, as abnormal performance on a proportion of subtests within a battery should be regarded as psychometrically normal [4]. A number of methods for calculation of reliable change have been proposed, adopted and further modified. These methods are usually given the designation of Reliable Change Index (RCI), and are used to estimate the effect of error variance on test score accuracy [6]. The value of the RCI is used to indicate the probability of the difference between two observed scores being the result of measurement error, and thus if the resulting probability is low, the difference is likely due to factors external to the test itself [1]. The notion of reliable change originated in classical test theory, with the standard error of the difference used as the criterion for determining whether an observed difference is credible under the null hypothesis of no real change [8]. However, the original, unmodified classical approach assumes that there are no practice effects. Certain subsequent variations of this approach have aimed to account for practice effects, in one of two ways. Either by a simple adaptation of the Jacobson and Truax approach (a widely used, simplified version of the classical approach, called the JT index), or via estimation of true change by using a regression equation, with the latter method being the favoured alternative in this context [8]. This regression-based approach does not require the test scores at each of the time points to have equal variance, and thus practice effects can occur [6]. There are many further approaches to calculation of RCIs, with no real consensus about which method is superior and should represent the ‘gold standard’ approach [8]. Furthermore, whilst RCI methods do have a number of advantageous features, there are still inherent limitations when considering factors such as real change that remains undetected if it falls below the RCI threshold [6]. Additionally, whilst reliable change methodology adjusted for practice effects has the potential to reduce measurement error and improve clinical judgement, it utilises a constant value the group mean – and so does not take into account the full range of possible practise effects, nor does it traditionally account for regression to the mean, so that error estimates are not proportional to the extremities of observed changes [1]. However, this methodology does at least provide a systematic and potentially empirically valid approach to assessment of real change [6]. In contrast, whil st regression methods do also have their own inherent limitations, such as greater utility in larger sample sizes, these are considered less extensive than RCI methodology [1]. The methods discussed thus far are primarily distribution-based approaches, meaning that they express observed change in a standardised format. A primary disadvantage of this type of approach is that they are purely statistical measurements which do not reveal the clinical significance of any observed change [9]. Alternative approaches include the use of reference states to estimate the minimal important difference or change, which refers to the smallest change in health quality that the patient is able to perceive and that is considered clinically relevant change [3]. However, these approaches have their own inherent limitations, with direct and subjective patient involvement in the change assessment process increasing the complexity of the measurement [3]. As the determination of an individual’s current cognitive functioning, as well as whether this functioning has improved or declined since prior assessment, is fundamental to the efficacy of clinical neuropsychology, the ability to reliably determine change via comparison of test scores is crucial [6]. However, as has been outlined above, the approaches involved in this determination are varied in their efficacy, and come with inherent limitations. As such, when considering the clinical significance of test results, a patient’s performance needs to be interpreted contextually, taking into account relevant behavioural, medical and historical information, as psychometric variability alone is not sufficient [4]. Furthermore, examination of the functional outcomes of any measured change is crucial, as this is of at least equivalent importance in determining whether improvement or decline has taken place [6]. References 1. Brooks, B.L., et al., Developments in neuropsychological assessment: Refining psychometric and clinical interpretive methods. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 2009. 50(3): p. 196. 2. Charter, R.A., Revisiting the standard errors of measurement, estimate, and prediction and their application to test scores. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1996. 82(3c): p. 1139-1144. 3. Rejas, J., A. Pardo, and M.à . Ruiz, Standard error of measurement as a valid alternative to minimally important difference for evaluating the magnitude of changes in patient-reported outcomes measures. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 2008. 61(4): p. 350-356. 4. Binder, L.M., G.L. Iverson, and B.L. Brooks, To err is human:â€Å"Abnormal† neuropsychological scores and variability are common in healthy adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 2009. 24(1): p. 31-46. 5. McHugh, M.L., Standard error: meaning and interpretation. Biochemia Medica, 2008. 18(1): p. 7-13. 6. Perdices, M., How do you know whether your patient is getting better (or worse)? A users guide. Brain Impairment, 2005. 6(03): p. 219-226. 7. Crawford, J.R., P.H. Garthwaite, and C.B. Gault, Estimating the percentage of the population with abnormally low scores (or abnormally large score differences) on standardized neuropsychological test batteries: a generic method with applications. Neuropsychology, 2007. 21(4): p. 419. 8. Maassen, G.H., E. Bossema, and N. Brand, Reliable change and practice effects: Outcomes of various indices compared. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 2009. 31(3): p. 339-352. 9. Ostelo, R.W., et al., Interpreting change scores for pain and functional status in low back pain: towards international consensus regarding minimal important change. Spine, 2008. 33(1): p. 90-94.

Analysis of Air Quality in the UK

Analysis of Air Quality in the UK Introduction Air pollution has always been a major area of concern in the developed world, especially in major cities. Air pollution is defined as- ‘the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke, or vapour in quantities and of characteristics and duration such as to be injurious to human, plant, or animal life or to property, or to interfere unreasonably with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property. In the past there have been severe problems with air quality in the United Kingdom, especially in major cities such as London. In 1952 the Great London Smog, which came about due to an increase in industrialisation, caused heavy smoke to settle over the city for days and caused thousands of deaths. Fortunately, the air quality in London has substantially improved since then and visible air pollution, such as dust, smoke, and smog has mostly disappeared due to UK and European legislation and initiatives. However, there have been more recent instances of deaths caused by air pollution. In 2003, during Londons summer smog episode in August there were a total of between 46 and 212 premature deaths from ozone and 85 from particulate matter. Londons summer smog episode in July 2006 was likely to have resulted in a similar or greater number of deaths from ozone and a slightly lower number for particulate matter. Due these events and increase public awareness or the damaging effects of air pollution, the United Kingdom government has put various legislation and initiatives in place to improve air quality. Air pollutants are mainly caused by human activities that have serious health effects on human health, wildlife, and the environment. As well, car and aviation pollution are major sources of many air pollutants and the number of vehicles and aircrafts are increasing. These pollutants all contribute to climate change, which could lead to flooding and extreme weather. Environmental legislation that deals with air pollution has aimed to improve air quality through a variety of measures. Furthermore, initiatives such as the National Air Quality Strategy and preventative systems like the precautionary, preventative and polluter pays principles also aim to improve air quality. Other proposals include reducing car emissions, buying locally produced goods and turning off electronic devices when not in use. Air Pollutants Many activities that seem harmless on the surface contribute to air pollution, from driving a car to using hairspray. The main pollutants of concern that affect air quality include, but are not limited to; particulate matter, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). These pollutants can have serious health effects in both the long and short term. Particulate matter is non-visible airborne particles and the main source is the emissions from diesel engines. When inhaled, particulate matter can reach deep in the lungs where it can produce inflammation and worsen heart and lung diseases in sufferers of these conditions. Volatile organic compounds are mainly released in vehicle exhaust gases, usually as unburned fuels. These compounds can irritate the lungs and lower resistance to certain infections. Chlorofluorocarbons are a product of aerosol sprays, solvents, etc that undergo a major reaction that destroys the ozone. The ozone is vital as it protects life from ultraviolet radiation. Also, CFCs can have a more visible effect as it has been known to irritate the lungs and increase the symptoms in sufferers of asthma and lung diseases. Other possible long term health effects include cancer, liver and kidney damage, and birth defects. Sulphur dioxide is released into the air due to the burning of fossil fuels which contain sulphur, the most common source being coal fired power stations. It is an acidic gas which can combine with water vapour to produce acid rain, which has been linked to the death of wildlife in some cases, as well as to the corrosion of buildings. It can cause a decrease in lung function in persons who already suffer from respiratory problems. Thus, it is clear to see why it is important to reduce these pollutants as much as possible to ensure the safety of the population. Car Pollution Motor Vehicles are one of the major sources of air pollution in the United Kingdom by causing carbon dioxide emissions at a total of 22%. Other air pollutants from motor vehicles include nitrogen oxides, particles, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. This will not change in the near future as traffic levels are predicted to continue to rise. All of these pollutants have a damaging impact on human health and flora and fauna. The UK Government has introduced measures to combat this form of air pollution. The annual Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) was introduced in 2001 as a way to tax motor vehicles based on predicted carbon dioxide emissions and the type of fuel used. In addition, tax discounts are available for users who buy bio-fuel and hybrid electric vehicles. In this way, car owners are encouraged to buy vehicles which are less harmful to the environment. Aviation Pollution In 2006, approximately 240 million passengers passed through the main UK airports and the government predicts that by 2020 this will increase to 400 million passengers. Pollutant emissions from aircrafts are rising with the increasing amount of flights. Previously, the main pollutant that was emitted from aircrafts was nitrogen oxides (NOx). These are harmful as they contribute to the making of ozone which has a major part in global warming; however this is not a problem of recent for civil aviation with the decommissioning of the Concorde. As well, aircrafts are a major source of carbon dioxide emissions and these emissions at a higher altitude are thought to have a greater effect on climate change than emissions on the ground. In fact, it is likely that the aviation sector will become the main source of carbon dioxide in the near future. Climate Change Along with directly harming human health as mentioned, another effect that these pollutants cause is climate change, which implies a significant change from one climatic condition to another. This happens when the emission of greenhouse gases trap the radiation emitted by the earths surface which raises the air temperature. There are predictions that this can cause changes such as the melting of polar ice caps which could cause flooding in low-lying areas. The ‘greenhouse effect, as this is called, continues to increase as the emissions of these gases are on the rise and the government is following the Kyoto Protocol targets in order to reduce these emissions. As well, the UK launched a climate change program in 2000 with the aim of helping the UK to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5% by 2012 and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 20% by 2010. The reduction of greenhouse gas emission is done through integrated pollution prevention and control permits. The two main economic instruments used to combat climate change in the United Kingdom are the climate change levy and the national emissions trading scheme. The Climate Change Levy (CCL), which was introduced in the Finance Act 2000, is an energy usage tax that is levied on users in the industrial and public sector. There are also discount schemes in place, as well as an incentive to companies as they can reclaim 100% of capital allowance for energy efficient products within the first year of expenditure. The national emissions trading scheme is a voluntary measure which began in 2002 and aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by allowing participants to buy and sell allowances to produce emissions. The scheme was devised by the Emissions Trading Authority. The allowances are based on specific reduction target agreed on by the participants. One of the critiques of the scheme is that any reduction in emissions is not necessarily linked to the trading scheme. Current Legislation Air pollution is a challenging area of environmental law to regulate. This is because emissions can diffuse quickly and it can be difficult to identity the sources of pollution. Although the UK government has been accused of being reactive rather than proactive with regards to environmental regulation, the government has passed various laws in an effort to combat air pollution. The first of such laws was passed in response to the Great London Smog, and called the Clean Air Act 1956. The act aimed to protect the environment by controlling and reducing sources of smoke pollution including smoke, dust, and fumes from all fires and furnaces by introducing smokeless zones in the city. This act was supplemented by the Clean Air Act 1968, and both acts were consolidated in the Clean Air Act 1993. As well, The Environment Act 1995 contains a number of provisions which enabled the development of various policies on air pollution. It requires all local authorities in the UK to review and assess air quality in their area. If any standards are unlikely to be met by the required date, then that area will be designated an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) and the local authority must implement an action plan aimed at reducing levels of the pollutant. Furthermore, some local authorities have adopted specific bye laws to control sources of air pollution. However, these can be difficult to enforce because surveillance is complicated and it is not easy to find those responsible. In terms of traffic control, the Road Traffic Reduction Act 1997 places a duty on local authorities to continually review traffic levels on roads and to produce targets for lowering traffic numbers. Local authorities have the power to do this by issuing Traffic Regulation Orders (TROs) which can be used to achieve air quality objectives by restricting traffic in certain areas. Also, under the Transport Act 2000, every local transport authority must create Local Transport Plans (LTP) which give details for promoting public transport and charging levies to vehicle uses. Finally, the Air Quality (England) Regulations 2000 sets down the targets for air quality in each area starting from the end of 2003 to 2008. These objectives are to reduce the main pollutants of concern and are set in relation to the effect on human health, as well as its effect on the environment in general. Initiatives The National Air Quality Strategy is the main policy that sets out UK air quality standards and objectives for reducing levels of health-threatening pollutants and maintaining or improving air quality levels. Its power comes from section 80 of the Environment Act 1995. The levels of reduction have been set on the basis of scientific and medical evidence on the health effects of the various pollutants, and according to how realistic the standards to be met are. Many of these standards are the product of UK incorporation of European law. The targets laid out by the strategy are usually achieved by pollution control legislation through the setting of emission limits. However, though the environment act provides a power to prescribe standards, the strategy has no statutory force. The system of Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) is the main form of pollution regulation in the UK, and gets its power under the Environmental Protection Act 1990. It aims to ensure that solutions that have a positive impact on one area of the environment, does not have a negative impact on another i.e. to have more integrated solutions. The system involves issuing a permit and conditions are based on the use of Best Available Techniques (BAT), which balances the costs of preventing environmental impacts against benefits to the environment. Where a breach of legally binding EU air quality limit values is caused by a particular industrial installation or sector, more stringent permit limits than BAT can be imposed. A number of smaller installations are covered by Local Authority Pollution Prevention and Control (LAPPC), which controls emissions to air only. The Precautionary and Preventative Principles These principles are methods of protecting the environment from damage. This precautionary principle states that precautions should be taken to protect human health and the environment, even in the event of a lack of evidence of harm caused. However, critics say it does not specify how much caution should be taken. As well week precaution, which is used in the UK, only requires precautionary measures to be taken when the balance of cost and benefits justifies doing so. This basically means that persons can cause environmental damage as long as it is a net gainer to do so, which does not let the public know the importance of protecting the environment. The preventative principle is more widely acceptable. It states that the damage should be prevented in advance rather than taken care of after the fact. It also requires the preventative measures to be based on scientific standards. Thus, it is more likely to be accepted by big corporations as it is a more proven measure. The Polluter Pays Principle The polluter pays principle is a policy developed by the EC. It means that the person or organisation that caused the pollution should pay for the cost of the pollution. This includes direct and indirect costs as well as costs incurred by avoiding pollution. However is should be noted that this principle, though followed, has no statutory force. This policy has major criticism because it is hard to determine the limits on payment for damage caused. It is also difficult to identify the polluter. In most instances, only certain polluters are targeted which brings harsh criticism and questions the validity of the policy. As well, it could give the impression that pollution is acceptable as long as you pay for it which sends the wrong message. Proposals The only way that the above mentioned legislations and initiatives will work in todays society is if there is a greater emphasis on public awareness of the effects of air pollution on our environment. The most efficient starting point in combating air pollution is by seeking to reduce emissions in motor vehicles, as well as reducing the number of vehicles. This can be done through the promotion of public transport and carpooling. Also, there should be more encouragement of buying local goods, as the longer the distance that goods are transported, the more air pollution is generated. Thus, if more people consumed locally produced goods it would go a long way in reducing air pollution and improving air quality. Finally, if people switch off their electronic devices when they are not using them and use energy-saving light bulbs, they can save on their electricity bill as well as reduce the amount of pollutants that are emitted into the air. Therefore, if less electricity is used then le ss power is produced and fewer pollutants will be released into the air. Conclusion The environment is obviously very important for various reasons, and every effort must be made to protect it to the greatest extent possible. It can be seen that air pollution has a significant negative impact on human health, wildlife, architecture and the environment in general. This is mostly caused by certain human activities and by reducing them we can improve air quality. These improvements include taking non-vehicle means of transportation, buying locally produced goods, switching off electronic appliances and buying energy-saving light bulbs. However, air pollution is a difficult area of environmental law to navigate, as the range of polluters and the sources of pollutants are varied and difficult to identity. It is important to continue improvements of air quality in the UK, especially in light of upcoming events such as the Olympics in 2012. As Philip Mulligan, Chief Executive of Environmental Protection UK, said: With current concerns regarding the air quality in Beijing for the Olympics this summer, it is only fitting that London takes steps to ensure that air quality standards are met in the capital, in time for the 2012 games. It is important that the United Kingdom is seen as a leader in protecting the environment, as a lot of countries look the UK for guidance on important issues such as these.

Edna’s Self Discovery in Chopin’s The Awakening :: Chopin Awakening

Edna’s Self Discovery in Chopin’s The Awakening She was fond of her children in an uneven, impulsive way. She would sometimes gather them passionately to her heart; she would sometimes forget them. The year before they had spent part of the summer with their grandmother Pontellier in Iberville. Feeling secure regarding their happiness and welfare, she did not miss them except with an occasional intense longing. Their absence was a sort of relief, though she did not admit this, even to herself. It seemed to free her of a responsibility which she had blindly assumed and for which fate had not fitted her. (p. 40) Edna Pontellier is a child discovering her very sense of self. Her attitude toward her own children emphasizes the she is not the typical â€Å"mother-woman† (p. 29). This is one of the key elements in identifying Edna’s â€Å"awakening.† Unlike the other women, such as Madame Ratignolle, she has not accepted her role unquestionably. This passage is an insightful window into the beginnings of Edna’s new thoughts. Edna considers herself â€Å"fond of her children.† This statement alone is strange. Most mothers are enamored of their children, obsessed with their every movement. Even her fondness is considered â€Å"uneven† and â€Å"impulsive.† Edna, beginning to feel as a child herself, is noticing these traits within her. Edna speaks of the summer they spent away â€Å"with their grandmother...in Iberville.† Even in their extended absence she missed them only with â€Å"an occasional intense longing,† perhaps as someone might miss a city, or an old tattered stuffed toy. She seemed to feel towards them more as family, loved and missed, but not intensely as a mother would. Most striking in this passage are the last two sentences. It is in these phrases that Edna begins to demonstrate something important about herself. She feels â€Å"relief† when the children are gone. She feels â€Å"free† of the â€Å"responsibility.† One â€Å"which she had blindly assumed.† Edna had simply accepted the role of motherhood. It was expected, and so she had asked no questions. She is now realizing, however, that she feels this is a position in life â€Å"for which fate had not fitted her.

Gene Therapy and Cancer :: Genetics Science Technology Medical Essays

Gene Therapy and Cancer In 1997, an estimated 1.38 million Americans will be newly diagnosed with cancer (Blaese, 1997). The treatments available only cure half of them. Many new strategies, including gene therapy are in developmental stages for treating cancer. Nearly half of all gene therapy trials currently under way deal with cancer and experts believe a number of these applications will be in use within the next three to five years (Lyon, 1997). Cancer is considered a genetic disorder. Studies have identified a small number of genes that must be mutated to bring about development of cancer or maintain the growth of malignant cells (Klug, 1996). Two main properties of cancer are uncontrollable cell division and the ability to spread or metastasize. Both are results of genetic alterations. Mutations in the cells that lead to certain forms of cancer, can be identified as inherited in some families. In most cases, however, it is difficult to identify a simple pattern of inheritance. There are two ways to regulate cell division. One way is with tumor suppressor genes, which usually function to inactivate or repress cell division. These genes or their products or both, must be inactivated sporadically for cell division of take place. If they are permanently inactivated or lost through mutation, uncontrolled cell division occurs. Another way cell division is regulated is by proto-oncogenes, which usually promotes cell division also. These genes can be in an "on" or "off" mode and when in the "on" mode, cell division is promoted. When the genes or their products or both are inactivated, cell division is stopped. If they are permanently switched "on", cell regulation is stopped and tumor formation begins. Oncogenes are the mutant form of proto-oncogenes. An example of a transformation of a proto-oncogene to an oncogene is the p53 gene, which encodes a nuclear protein that acts as a transcription factor. The p53 gene is usually a tumor suppressor gene that controls passage of the cell from one phase of mitosis to another. The mutations in p53 gene are estimated to be associated with over half of all cancers. The most prevalent cause of death in cancer patients is metastasis, where cancer cells detach from the original tumor site and settle elsewhere in the body, to grow and divide producing another tumor. There are two kinds of tumors, benign and malignant. Benign tumors can be removed and usually do not return.

Dalai Lama :: Essays Papers

Dalai Lama His Holiness, the XIVth Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso was born in a small village called Takster in northeastern Tibet. Born to a peasant family, His Holiness was recognized at the age of two, in accordance with Tibetan tradition, as the reincarnation of his predecessor the 13th Dalai Lama. His enthronement ceremony took place on February 22, 1940 in Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. The Dalai Lamas are the manifestations of the Bodhisattva of Compassion, who chose to reincarnate to serve the people. Dalai Lama means Ocean of Wisdom. Tibetans normally refer to His Holiness as Yeshin Norbu, the Wish-fulfilling Gem, or simply, Kundun, meaning The Presence. Born Lhamo Dhondrub, he was, as Dalai Lama, renemaed Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso - Holy Lord, Gentle Glory, Compassionate, Defender of the Faith, Ocean of Wisdom. He began his education at the age of six and completed the Geshe Lharampa Degree (Doctorate of Buddhist Philosophy) when he was 25. At 24, he took the preliminary examination at each of the three monastic universities: Drepung, Sera and Ganden. The final examination was held in the Jokhang, Lhasa, during the annual Monlam Festival of Prayer, held in the first month of every year. In the morning he was examined by 30 scholars on logic. In the afternoon, he debated with 15 scholars on the subject of the Middle Path, and in the evening, 35 scholars tested his knowledge of the canon of monastic discipline and the study of metaphysics. His Holiness passed the examinations with honors, conducted before a vast audience of monk scholars. In 1950, at age 16, His Holiness was called upon to assume full political power as head of State and Government when Tibet was threatened by the might of China. In 1954 he went to Peking to talk with Mao Tse-Tung and other Chinese leaders, including Chou En-Lai and Deng Xiaoping. In 1956, while visiting India to attend the 2500th Buddha Jayanti, he had a series of meetings with Prime Minister Nehru and Premier Chou about deteriorating conditions in Tibet. In 1959 he was forced into exile in India after the Chinese military occupation of Tibet. Since 1960 he has resided in Dharamsala, aptly known as "Little Lhasa", the seat of the Tibetan Government-in-Exile. In the early years of exile, His Holiness appealed to the United Nations on the question of Tibet, resulting in three resolutions adopted by the General Assembly in 1959, 1961 and 1965.

Hinduism and the Religion’s Worldviews Essay

Hinduism is not merely a religion, it is also a philosophy and the culture in India, and it has already been a marked part of their everyday living. So much so that everything aspect of their daily lives goes back to it; and it has 950 million followers to wit (mostly from India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Pakistan). Hinduism ranks third as the world’s largest religion after Christianity and Islam, and it is also said to be one of the world’s oldest organized religion along with Judaism (VandeWeghe, 2007). Hinduism and Christianity differ in many ways, and it is rational that there are disagreements and contradictions when two people from different religions involve themselves in a conversation regarding their beliefs. The purpose of this paper is to discover an effective way to build a pleasant relationship with a Hindu in order to be able to share the gospel with them. In order to accomplish this aim, this paper will discuss the origin, beliefs, practices and the views of Hinduism about Christianity and how they differ from the said religion. Hinduism: A Closer Look According to Robinson (2007), besides being called â€Å"Hinduism†, it is also referred to as Sanata Dharma (eternal religion) and Vaidika Dharma (religion of the Vedas). Hinduism has no specific founder and the day that it was born is still unknown; however, there are two theories regarding the origin of the religion. One is the Classical Theory which explains that Hinduism originated at the Indus Valley around 4000BCE to 2200BCE and that its development was due to various foreign invasions particularly of the Indo-Aryan for they are the ones who were said to have brought the religion of Vedism. The other is the Emerging Theory which went against the first theory by proving that there were no foreign invasions along the Indus Valley and that the Vedic religion (Hinduism at 1500BCE to 500BCE) was allowed to flourish by the same group of people who later called themselves Aryan. The Hindu scriptures as well as literatures, which are even older than the Bible’s Old Testament, are the sources of the religion’s beliefs and practices. The most sacred Hindu scriptures are the four Vedas (Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda) which consists of hymns, incantations, rituals and explanations – among which the Rig Veda (1700BCE to 1100BCE) is said to be the oldest. There are also the Upanishads which discussed â€Å"states of consciousness, dreams, meditations, self-realizations and unity†; the Darshanas which consists of six philosophical system and teachings derived from the Vedas; and lastly and the most recent, the Puranas which tells the stories of the most recent gods (Reid & Corduan, 2008). Hinduism also has the two great epics that show the virtues and ideals that are significant to the religion; the first is the Ramayana which is a tale about a prince named Rama and his wife, Sita, and the Mahabarata, a collection of poems which states the duties of a â€Å"religious, law-abiding man† (Mason, 2000). Not only is Hinduism one of the oldest and largest religions, it is also said to be the most complex one (McDowell, 2002). There are various beliefs in Hinduism and one of them is the very popular and highly criticized Caste System which is said to be the cause of inequality and harsh laws in India. There are four main castes; the Brahmin (priest-teachers), kshatriyas (soldier-nobles), vaishyas (merchants) and sudras (servants). In the early periods, it was supposed to be part of the divine order, however, as years passed by, subcastes were developed and there came the outcastes or the untouchables – people who do not belong to any of the four main castes (Perry, 1989). Associated with this system are other beliefs. The belief that each of them have dharma (duty), depending on which caste they were born into; they also believe in karma and samsara (reincarnation) – thus, they believe that if they do their duty properly, they will have good karma and will be reincarnated into a higher class. On the contrary, if they did not, they might be reincarnated to the lower class or even as an animal. Their goal is to achieve moksha (release), which is their concept of salvation. Here they would not be liberated from sin but to life existence itself for they believe that as long as they are in the maya (phenomenal world) suffering would never stop because of karma and samsara. Moksha can be attained in three ways, by â€Å"way of works†, â€Å"way of knowledge† and â€Å"way of devotion† (bhakti) which is the most popular one, in which a person will completely devote himself to a certain god and the latter will take care of everything in his behalf (Reid & Corduan, 2008). In early Hinduism, Jesus Christ has no particular role in the religion and is not even mentioned in their scriptures; however, due to the rise of Christianity, Hindu thinkers thought of a place where they could put Jesus Christ in their religion. According to Reid and Corduan (2008), since Hinduism is a polytheistic religion, the Hindus viewed Jesus Christ as one of the incarnations or avatars of Brahman who, like Rama and Krishna, is a â€Å"divine self-embodiment† in order to preserve Hindu teachings and another way was by saying that Jesus Christ spent his â€Å"silent years† in India to proclaim the teachings of Hinduism. Nevertheless, Hindus’ incorporation of Jesus Christ into their religion does not seem to fit properly. According to McDowell (2002), Hinduism is known to be tolerant towards other religions because of similarities with Hinduism. This is believed to be one of the characteristics of a polytheistic and henotheistic (believing in one god and regarding other gods and goddesses as just manifestations) religions. However, due to rise of a nationalistic political party which took hold of the India’s government, the separation of church and state collapsed and religious tolerance went down as well, increasing anti-Christian violence in the country (Robinson, 2007). Christianity and Hinduism has numerous differences and some of them are the following: Hinduism’s Supreme Being is the Brahman, an indefinable and impersonal deity, while Christianity has a loving, personal and caring Creator. Hinduism looks at man as a materialization of Brahman who has no value and self-worth at all, whereas, Christianity proclaims that man is created in the very image of God that deserves to love and be loved despite their sinful deeds. When it comes to sins, there are no sins that are committed against Brahman, things that were done wrong are taken as results of ignorance that can be redeemed by following the duty of a specific caste to which the person belongs to and the path going to salvation. On the other hand, wrongdoings that are done within Christianity is taken as acts of rebellion against God. Salvation in Hinduism is referred to as moksha and can be attained in three ways which cannot be accomplished in one lifetime, while salvation in the Christian sense is granted by God to those who deserve it after being separated from him. Lastly, even their view of the material world differ – for a Hindu, the material world is an extension of Brahman and just a transitory and secondary importance; on the contrary, Christians see the material world as an objective reality and a something total different from God (McDowell, 2002). However, despite these differences, it is said that Hindus accept Jesus, but not the Christian relgion. In fact, they even refer Christianity to â€Å"Churchianity. † According to Abhedananda (2002), Hindus can tell apart the religion of Jesus Christ from the religion of the Church for the reason that the true religion of Jesus Christ is a religion of the heart. Thus, it has no dogma and no theology, no rituals and ceremonies, and is not based from a book. From their perspective, the religion of the Church is based from a book, is full of creeds and rituals, and even has an organized way of preaching them. When it comes to the Gospels, they see it as full of inconsistencies and discrepancies, and one very doubtful area for the Hindus comes from their awareness that Jesus Christ did not have His own writings and that there are no precise and contemporary accounts of His life inside and outside of the Bible. In order to share the Gospels to the Hindus, Rev. Dharmaraj (2001), gave some advice to approach the Hindus and make them listen to the Gospels. He said that one should determine and understand what type of Hindu community one intends to visit, since there are different sects that belong to Hinduism. Next, he said that one should explain the concepts incorporated in the Gospels in order for them to understand the Gospels for they have their own understanding of God, salvation, sin, among others. Lastly, Christians should deal with the challenges of dogmatism, risks of syncretism and to focus on evangelism. In addition, according to Reid and Corduan (2008), a Christian should connect with the person rather with the person’s religion; Christians should approach them along with humanitarian efforts and outreach projects since Hinduism does not cater to such. Through a combination of these, Hindus have already felt the kind of loving relationships that pay no attention to the caste which have long been abolished but is still being practiced. The salvation of Christianity even reached them in a way, and it even made them accept Jesus Christ more as they felt that they have been freed from the dark aspects of Hinduism. The one who comes from above is above all. The one who is of the earth is earthly and speaks of earthly things. But the one who comes from heaven [is above all]. He testifies to what he has seen and heard, but no one accepts his testimony. Whoever does accept his testimony certifies that God is trustworthy. For the one whom God sent speaks the words of God. He does not ration his gift of the Spirit. The Father loves the Son and has given everything over to him. Whoever believes in the Son has eternal life, but whoever disobeys the Son will not see life, but the wrath of God remains upon him. (John 3:31-36, NAB) In the given Gospel, in order for a Hindu to understand it, one should clarify that the God in the Gospel is the Creator and that His son is Jesus Christ, the Savior of mankind from sins. In addition, it will also be better to give a slight background of what the Gospel is about – say that at this point in the Gospel, the Savior have finally presented Himself in front of the people. The Hindu should also be informed that â€Å"eternal life† is referring to the promised salvation in a Christian context and that it can only be attained by believing in Jesus Christ. On the other hand, the Christian should also point out what â€Å"the wrath of God† means, so that the Hindu could have insights as to the consequences of not obeying their God. And since this pertains to the concept of Hell, it should be also explained again in totality for Hindus do not have this concept in their belief system. Hinduism is a large complex religion that is older than Christianity. If one would be able to understand the essentials of this religion, it would be easy to reach out to the Hindus and make them listen to the Gospel. Christians have their views about Hinduism and Hindus likewise have their own views about Christianity. While they criticize and contradict each other about most of the aspects of their beliefs, setting them aside for awhile in order to learn about one another’s religion makes it possible to establish not just communication but also an open, two-way relationship. To share a Gospel to Hindus, proper understanding of Hinduism is required along with the use of an effective interpersonal approach. References Mason, C. (2000). A short history of Asia – Stone Age to 2000AD. London: Palgrave Macmillan Perry, M. (1989). A history of the world.Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Holy Bible: the new American Bible. (1987). Nashville: Thomas Nelson Abhedananda, S. (2002). Why a Hindu accepts Christ and rejects Churchianity. Retrieved March 31, 2008 from Hinduism website: http://www. hinduism. co. za/jesus. htm Dharmahal, P. (1992). Communicating Christ to the Hindu world. Retrieved April 1, 2008 from Mission Frontiers website: http://www. missionfrontiers. org/1992/0912/sd9211. htm McDowell, J. (2002). A ready defense. Retrieved March 31, 2008 from Jesus Who website: http://www. greatcom. org/resources/areadydefense/ch24/default. htm Reid, P. & Corduan, W. (2008). About Hinduism. Retrieved March 31, 2008 from Christian Answers Network website: http://christiananswers. net/evangelism/beliefs/hinduism. html Robinson, B. A. (2007). Hinduism: the world’s third largest religion. Retrieved March 31, 2008 from Religious Tolerance website: http://www. religioustolerance. org/hinduism. htm VandeWeghe, R. (2007). Prepared to answer. Retrieved March 31, 2008 from Windmill Ministries website: http://www. windmillministries. org/frames/CH30A. htm